Competency K
Design training programs based on appropriate learning principles and theories
Introduction
Merriam Webster defines the word teach as: “To cause to know” and “To impart the knowledge of something”. Those two functions are at the heart of what librarians do. Therefore, librarians teach. They may function in different settings than traditional teachers, and in different ways, but the two professions have common goals. If so, librarians must be aware of and utilize effective learning principles, theories and practices modified to their unique roles and settings. Librarians like teachers, must be in the people building business. Libraries must design programs and services that allow people to not only locate information but provide them the skills they can use to independently find and apply new knowledge. Helping people continuously improve themselves and their lives through the application of new knowledge should be the goal of every librarian.
Learning Principles and Theories
In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views. It is also thought of as the way in which information is absorbed, processed, and retained. "Learning theories" are elaborate hypotheses that describe how exactly this procedure occurs. Learning theories have two chief values. One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions. There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.There are four approaches or orientations to learning: Behaviourist, Cognitivist, Humanist, and Social/Situational. These approaches involve contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education - and the role that educators may take.
Behaviorist
Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of “stimulus-response.” All behavior is caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.
John B. Watson, who is generally credited as the first behaviorist, argued that the inner experiences that were the focus of psychology could not be properly studied, as they were not observable. He developed the stimulus-response model. This environment provides stimuli to which individuals develop responses. This theory was built upon by, researchers like Edward L. Thorndike, creating S-R (stimulus-response) theory of learning. He noted that responses (or behaviors) were strengthened or weakened by the consequences of behavior. Refined by Skinner, and is perhaps better known as operant conditioning - reinforcing what you want people to do again; ignoring or punish what you want people to stop doing. In terms of learning there are four key principles come to the forefront:
Cognitivist
Cognitive learning is about enabling people to learn by using their reason, intuition and perception. This technique is often used to change a person’s behavior. People's behavior is influenced by many factors such as culture, upbringing, education and motivation. Jean Piaget, explored changes in internal cognitive structure. He identified four stages of mental growth (sensor motor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational). Jerome Bruner explored how mental processes could be linked to teaching (emphasizing, among other things, learning through discovery). Robert M. Gagné developed a model that highlighted eight different forms of learning - behaviorists identifying only a fragment of human capabilities. James Hartley has usefully drawn out some of the key principles of learning associated with cognitive psychology. He describes it: 'Learning results from inferences, expectations and making connections. Instead of acquiring habits, learners acquire plans and strategies, and prior knowledge is important'.
The principles he identifies are:
Humanist
Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfill one’s potential. Personal freedom, choice, motivations and feelings had to have their place. Perhaps the best known example is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of motivation. At the lowest level are physiological needs, at the highest self-actualization. Only when the lower needs are met is it possible to fully move on to the next level. A motive at the lower level is always stronger than those at higher levels.
Tennant summarizes these as follows:
Social/Situational
Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview proposes that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. Social learning theory imply that people learn from observing other people. Observations take place in a social setting'. Within psychology, initially it was behaviorists who looked to how people learned through observation. Later researchers like Albert Bandura looked to interaction and cognitive processes. One thing that observation does is to allow people to see the consequences of other’s behaviors.
Tennant argues, this orientation has the definite advantage of drawing attention to the need to understand knowledge and learning in context. However, situated learning depends on two claims:
Learning Principles and Theories
In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views. It is also thought of as the way in which information is absorbed, processed, and retained. "Learning theories" are elaborate hypotheses that describe how exactly this procedure occurs. Learning theories have two chief values. One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions. There are three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.There are four approaches or orientations to learning: Behaviourist, Cognitivist, Humanist, and Social/Situational. These approaches involve contrasting ideas as to the purpose and process of learning and education - and the role that educators may take.
Behaviorist
Behaviorism is a worldview that operates on a principle of “stimulus-response.” All behavior is caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning). All behavior can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.
John B. Watson, who is generally credited as the first behaviorist, argued that the inner experiences that were the focus of psychology could not be properly studied, as they were not observable. He developed the stimulus-response model. This environment provides stimuli to which individuals develop responses. This theory was built upon by, researchers like Edward L. Thorndike, creating S-R (stimulus-response) theory of learning. He noted that responses (or behaviors) were strengthened or weakened by the consequences of behavior. Refined by Skinner, and is perhaps better known as operant conditioning - reinforcing what you want people to do again; ignoring or punish what you want people to stop doing. In terms of learning there are four key principles come to the forefront:
- Activity is important. Learning is better when the learner is active rather than passive. ('Learning by doing' is to be applauded).
- Repetition, generalization and discrimination are important notions. Frequent practice - and practice in varied contexts - is necessary for learning to take place. Skills are not acquired without frequent practice.
- Reinforcement is the cardinal motivator. Positive reinforcers like rewards and successes are preferable to negative events like punishments and failures.
- Learning is helped when objectives are clear.
Cognitivist
Cognitive learning is about enabling people to learn by using their reason, intuition and perception. This technique is often used to change a person’s behavior. People's behavior is influenced by many factors such as culture, upbringing, education and motivation. Jean Piaget, explored changes in internal cognitive structure. He identified four stages of mental growth (sensor motor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational). Jerome Bruner explored how mental processes could be linked to teaching (emphasizing, among other things, learning through discovery). Robert M. Gagné developed a model that highlighted eight different forms of learning - behaviorists identifying only a fragment of human capabilities. James Hartley has usefully drawn out some of the key principles of learning associated with cognitive psychology. He describes it: 'Learning results from inferences, expectations and making connections. Instead of acquiring habits, learners acquire plans and strategies, and prior knowledge is important'.
The principles he identifies are:
- Instruction should be well-organized. Well-organized materials easier to learn and to remember.
- Instruction should be clearly structured. Subject matters are said to have inherent structures - logical relationships between key ideas and concepts - which link the parts together.
- The perceptual features of the task are important. Learners attend selectively to different aspects of the environment. Thus, the way a problem is displayed is important if learners are to understand it.
- Prior knowledge is important. Things must fit with what is already known if it is to be learned.
- Differences between individuals are important as they will affect learning. Differences in 'cognitive style' or methods of approach influence learning.
- Cognitive feedback gives information to learners about their success or failure concerning the task at hand. Reinforcement can come through giving information - a 'knowledge of results' - rather than simply a reward
Humanist
Humanism is a paradigm/philosophy/pedagogical approach that believes learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfill one’s potential. Personal freedom, choice, motivations and feelings had to have their place. Perhaps the best known example is Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of motivation. At the lowest level are physiological needs, at the highest self-actualization. Only when the lower needs are met is it possible to fully move on to the next level. A motive at the lower level is always stronger than those at higher levels.
Tennant summarizes these as follows:
- Level one: Physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, relaxation and bodily integrity must be satisfied before the next level comes into play.
- Level two: Safety needs call for a predictable and orderly world. If these are not satisfied people will look to organize their worlds to provide for the greatest degree of safety and security. If satisfied, people will come under the force of level three.
- Level three: Love and belonginess needs cause people to seek warm and friendly relationships.
- Level four: Self-esteem needs involve the desire for strength, achievement, adequacy, mastery and competence. They also involve confidence, independence, reputation and prestige.
- Level five: Self-actualization is the full use and expression of talents, capacities and potentialities.
- Self actualizers are able to submit to social regulation without losing their own integrity or personal independence; that is they may follow a social norm without their horizons being bounded in the sense that they fail to see or consider other possibilities. They may on occasion transcend the socially prescribed ways of acting. Achieving this level may mean developing to the full stature of which they are capable.
Social/Situational
Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview proposes that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. New information is linked to prior knowledge, thus mental representations are subjective. Social learning theory imply that people learn from observing other people. Observations take place in a social setting'. Within psychology, initially it was behaviorists who looked to how people learned through observation. Later researchers like Albert Bandura looked to interaction and cognitive processes. One thing that observation does is to allow people to see the consequences of other’s behaviors.
Tennant argues, this orientation has the definite advantage of drawing attention to the need to understand knowledge and learning in context. However, situated learning depends on two claims:
- It makes no sense to talk of knowledge that is decontextualized, abstract or general.
- New knowledge and learning are properly conceived as being located in communities of practice.
Four orientations to learning (Merriam and Caffarella 1991: 138)
Experience
My first piece of evidence is from LIBR 246 Information Technology Tools and Applications. In this course we were assigned to groups and asked to create a technology plan. My groups created a Libguide, taking a cognitive approach to learning with a well organized guide that introduces users to SJSU library programs and services. It was intended to assist new undergraduate, graduate and PhD students, or any other incoming students who needs an introduction or refresher on how to use library resources. When new users come to a university they usually have no idea where or how to start using the library. This Library 101: Guide instructs users on library resources, tutorials, databases, programs and much more. . We also created a video that allows users to see an overview of the LibGuide. My second piece of evidence is an instructional video providing an overview of How to Register for Lane Medical Libraries Docxpress services. This video is a step by step visual on how to register to use the service. My last piece of evidence is an instruction video on How to Find a Journal a the Lane Medical Library. It gives instruction on the three ways you can search for the journal 1) Using Lane Search 2) Using the Journal Tab and 3) Using Lane Catalog.
Conclusion
When librarians and information professionals are designing programs and services for their users they must use effective practices based on research based learning theories in order to1) reach desired learning outcomes, 2) create a motivation for users to learn and 3) engage users effectively. Becoming familiar with, and using these different learning approaches in order engage users effectively, is very important to the success of library instruction and outreach efforts. Though these theories may contradict one another they each have something to offer in refining how we share knowledge best. Different librarians will believe in different theories to achieve their goals just as teachers do. What’s important is that librarians must be aware of these research based theories and find best practices to use them in their unique settings. It is said that in the heart of every librarian is a teacher. I believe that.
Evidence Summary and Artifacts
#1 LIBR : Library 101 Libguide for SJSU King Library
https://sites.google.com/site/libr24613library101/home
Introduction to the Library 101 video
http://www.screencast.com/t/Eaes0gNF
https://sites.google.com/site/libr24613library101/home
Introduction to the Library 101 video
http://www.screencast.com/t/Eaes0gNF
#2 Instructional Video: How to Register for Docxpress, Lane Medical Library Interlibrary Loan Service
http://www.screencast.com/t/i7ht3y6Bjlu
http://www.screencast.com/t/i7ht3y6Bjlu
References
Merriam, S. and Caffarella (1991, 1998) Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The humanistic to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-humanistic.htm, Last update: December 01, 2011.
Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (2012). Teach. Retrieved March 22, 2012, from Merriam-Webster: http://www.merriam-webster.com/
Smith, M. (2003). What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a process? Here we survey some common models. Retrieved from learning theory: http://www.infed.org
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The behaviourist orientation to learning',the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm, Last update: December 01, 2011.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The cognitive orientation to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive, Last update: December 01, 2011.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The social/situational orientation to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-social.htm, Last update: December 01, 2011.
Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The humanistic to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-humanistic.htm, Last update: December 01, 2011.
Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. (2012). Teach. Retrieved March 22, 2012, from Merriam-Webster: http://www.merriam-webster.com/
Smith, M. (2003). What is learning? Is it a change in behaviour or understanding? Is it a process? Here we survey some common models. Retrieved from learning theory: http://www.infed.org
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The behaviourist orientation to learning',the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm, Last update: December 01, 2011.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The cognitive orientation to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-cognitive, Last update: December 01, 2011.
Smith, M. K. (1999) 'The social/situational orientation to learning', the encyclopedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/learning-social.htm, Last update: December 01, 2011.
Tennant, M. (1988, 1997) Psychology and Adult Learning, London: Routledge.